48 Hughson T. Ong There are two types of code-switching. Situational code-switching oc- curs when a language user switches codes with reference to their social situation. An example of such would be when there is a sudden arrival of a new person in the social scene59. On the other hand, when a code-switch is required because of a change in the topic of discussion, this phenom- enon is called metaphorical code-switching. One very interesting point to note here is that “some topics may be discussed in either code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic”60. Correspondingly, even though there is no topic change involved and the participants are proficient in either codes, code-switching within a short utterance may still happen61. In sum, sociolinguists are interested in analyzing social factors that affect people’s linguistic choices, which are influenced by a consciousness of their social identity and motivated by their desire or purpose to accom- modate their listeners. These social factors can be generally grouped into the following components: (1) the participants: who is speaking and who are they speaking to; (2) the social context: where are they speaking; (3) the topic: what is being talked about; and (4) the function: why are they speaking62. Subsequently, they can be analyzed and evaluated using four different social dimension scales, any or all of which can be relevant to account for the code choice of a language user in a particular situation63. Code switches motivated by social identity (or the relationship between participants of more or less “equal” status) move along the social distance scale. This scale evaluates the intimacy or distance of the participants’ relationship. An all too common example of this is readily seen in new immigrants who may use brief phrases or even a few words to signal 59 Holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 35. 60 Wardhaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 104, 108. Finlayson and Slabbert also point out that “all code choices can be explained to indicate the set of rights and obliga- tions that he/she wishes to be in force during the exchange”, and Myers-Scotton asserts that code choices are discourse strategies. Finlayson ‒ Slabbert, “‘I’ll Meet You Half-Way with Language’”, 413; C. Myers-Scotton, Social Motivations for Codeswitching: Evidence from Africa (Oxford 1993) 57. 61 See C. Pfaff, “Constraints on Language Mixing”, Language in Society 55 (1979) 291- 318 for examples of this kind of code-switching among Spanish-English bilinguals. See also Labov, “The Notion of ‘System’ in Creole Studies”, in D.H. Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and Creolization of Languages (Cambridge 1971) 457. 62 Holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4. 63 Holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 25–26. Code-switching within short utterances can typically refer to code-mixing or intra-sentential code-switching. For an excellent study of the three patterns of intra-sentential code-switching—alternation, inser- tion, and congruent lexicalization, see P. Muysken, “Code-Switching Processes: Alternation, Insertion, Congruent Lexicalization”, in Pütz, Language Choices, 361-80.