104 Terrance Callan treats humans. In Spec. Leg. 4.121 Philo says that one should learn from dealing with irrational animals how to deal with humans (cf. Josephus, Ap. 2.213). Philo argues that the Mosaic laws concerning proper treatment of irrational animals and plants are intended to train people in proper treatment of one another (Virt. 131-134, 140, 160). At still other times the point is that some humans are like animals in lacking rationality. In Praecepta gerendae reipublicae Plutarch says that enticing a mob by currying favor with it rather than by persuasion is like catching and herding irrational animals (Moralia 802E). Galen says that children, who do not yet have reason, fight with one another like animals (De Placitis Hippocrates et Platonis 5.5.1-5). Corpus Hermeticum 4.5 describes those who are not gnostics as having perceptions like those of irrational animals. Most often humans are compared with irrational animals to make some more specific point. Sometimes humans are compared with irrational animals to say that they possess some good quality of animals, or even that they are inferior to animals in possessing some good quality. 4 Macc 14,14.18 says that irrational animals and humans are alike in having sympathy and love for their offspring. In Ant. 10.262 Josephus says that even the irrational lions who consumed the enemies of Daniel considered the wickedness of those enemies a reason for punishing them. In this way he suggests that these irrational creatures regard wickedness the same way humans should. In Post. 161 Philo says that irrational creatures are greatly superior to humans with regard to the senses of hearing and smell (cf. also Abr. 266-267). Similarly Plutarch says that nature is a stepmother to humans, but a mother to irrational animals because of the animals’ size, speed and vision (Fragment 121). In De amore prolis, Plutarch argues that irrational animals follow nature more closely than do rational ones (Moralia 493B-E). Elsewhere Plutarch says that humans should imitate irrational animals (Fragment 118) and in De Stoicorum repugnantiis he criticizes the Stoics because they do not consistently use the behavior of irrational animals as a model for human behavior (Moralia 1045B). 2 Peter 2,16 invokes this kind of positive comparison of humans and irrational animals; Balaam’s donkey, which is sometimes called an irrational animal (Philo, Mos. 1.272; Virt. 117), is presented as superior to Balaam in this verse. At other times humans are compared to irrational animals to say that they possess some bad quality of animals, especially their excessive appetite. For example, in Spec. Leg. 1.148 Philo compares desire to a licentious and unseemly irrational animal (ajlovgou qrvmmato") and says that the belly is its manger. Musonius Rufus says that we liken gluttons to unreasoning animals (zwv/oi" a[frosi — 18B) (12). Clement of Alexandria says that humans who live in order to eat are like irrational animals whose life is their belly and nothing else (Paidagog. 2.1.4). 2 Peter’s comparison of the false teachers to irrational animals falls into this general category. However, the specific way in which they resemble irrational animals is very different. As we have seen above, the main point of (12) The text and translation of Musionius Rufus are taken from C.E. LUTZ, Musonius Rufus “The Roman Socrates” (Yale Classical Studies 10; New Haven, CT 1947).