Comparison of Humans to Animals in 2 Peter 2,10b-22 109 be ashamed to engage in sexual intercourse in a public place. The dog that is mentioned in Deut 23,18 (Hebrew v. 19) may be a reference to a male prostitute who is called a dog because his behavior is similar to that of a dog(24). In addition to negative comparison of humans with dogs focusing on the aggressiveness and shamelessness of dogs, there are other comparisons that do not make explicit the behavior that makes them alike. It is likely, however, that aggressiveness and shamelessness form at least part of the basis for these unspecific comparisons. One example of this can be seen in the use of the name Cynic (= dog-like) for a philosophical school (25). In 1 Sam 17,43 Goliath asks David if Goliath is a dog that David comes to fight him with sticks. In the LXX David replies that Goliath is worse than a dog. This is reproduced by Josephus in Ant. 6.186. Such general derogatory comparison of humans with dogs can also be seen in a number of other biblical passages that denigrate humans as lowly (26). In other passages the comparison implies that humans have an evil character (27). In all of these passages people are presented as comparable to dogs in some unspecified, but negative, way (28). In Pseudo-Aristotle, Physiognomica the following physical characte- ristics are said to indicate negative traits on the basis that this is true of dogs: - a projecting upper lip and gums mark the abusive (811A) - if the tip of the nose is pointed, it means irascibility (811A) - a smooth brow marks the flatterer (811B) - fiery eyes mean impudence (808B) Note that except for Prov 26,11 people are not said to be like dogs specifically in that they return to their own vomit. One of the main ways in which humans are compared to dogs is with respect to their repulsive eating habits; however, returning to their own vomit is mentioned only in Proverbs and 2 Peter (29). b) Comparison of humans to pigs A rather elaborate instance of positive comparison of humans and pigs is found in Plutarch, Bruta animalia ratione uti (Moralia 985-992), in which Plutarch argues that pigs and other animals are rational, not irrational. In this dialogue Odysseus tries to persuade Circe to transform the humans she has turned into animals back into humans. According to the Odyssey, Circe had turned half of Odysseus’ men into pigs and had earlier turned other humans into other animals. Circe tells Odysseus that she will turn them back into men (24) J.B. BURNS, “Devotee or Deviate: The ‘Dog’ (keleb) in Ancient Israel as a Symbol of Male Passivity and Perversion”, Journal of Religion and Society 2 (2000). http//moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2000/2000-6.html. (25) On this see DIERAUER, Tier und Mensch, 181. (26) 1 Sam 24,14; 2 Sam 3,8; 9,8; 16,9; 2 Kgs 8,13; Mark 7,27/Matt 15,26. The lowliness of dogs is implied in Qoh 9,4 — “a living dog is better than a dead lion”. (27) Ps 22,16.20; Ps 59,6.14; Phil 3,3; Rev 22,15. (28) KELLER (Antike Tierwelt, 1.98) lists some additional instances in which humans and others are called dogs either to denigrate them or to indicate their evil character; see also DIERAUER, Tier und Mensch, 11 n. 27. (29) Gos. Truth 33.15-16 says, “Do not return to what you have vomited to eat it” . This converts the description of behavior found in Proverbs and 2 Peter into a warning against that behavior, but without mentioning that this is the behavior of a dog.