108 Terrance Callan against evil deeds, to a dog defending her puppies. According to Keller, Plautus and Horace use “little dog” (catellus) as a term of endearment for humans. And Pindar refers to Pan as the unexcelled dog of the great gods (20). Another example of a positive comparison of humans to dogs is found in Philo, Dec. 114-115; here Philo says that humans should imitate the example of dogs who guard their masters and die for them. In Pseudo-Aristotle, Physiognomica the following physical characte- ristics are said to indicate positive traits on the basis that this is true of dogs: - a deep voice goes with courage (807A) - a narrow waist marks the hunter (810B) - lips thin and pendulous such that part of the upper lip overhangs the lower signify pride of soul (811A) - a somewhat long, flat forehead means quickness of sense (811B) - a large head means quickness (812A) - hair on the point of the chin indicates a bold spirit (812B). Negative comparisons of humans to dogs focus on several aspects of canine behavior. In Gig. 35 Philo says that undisciplined pleasures are like dogs in that they fawn on us then turn against us and their bite is fatal. Bad rulers are compared to dogs in the same respect in Prob. 90. In 2.22.9 Epictetus compares the changeable dispositions of humans to dogs that first play with one another and then begin to fight over a piece of meat thrown among them. Humans are also compared to mad dogs. In Contemp. 40 Philo says that under the influence of drink some humans behave like mad dogs, bellowing and attacking and biting each other. Other comparisons of humans with mad dogs are found in Horace, Epistles 2.2.75; Josephus, B.J. 6.196; Ant. 7.209; Ignatius, Eph 7.1 and Augustine, City of God 22.21 (21). Humans are also described as like dogs in being shameless. In Ap. 2.85 Josephus says that Apion displays the shamelessness of a dog (see also Horace, Epistles 1.2.26). Humans are particularly like dogs with respect to their shameless eating and sexual activity. In B.J. 5.526 Josephus says that those besieged in Jerusalem continued like dogs to maul the carcass of the people (22). In Ant. 12.213 Josephus says that Hyrcanus accused his fellow diners of eating bones along with meat like dogs, while he discarded the bones like a human. In Epistles 72 Seneca says that foolish humans behave like dogs in waiting eagerly for whatever Fortune may throw them, bolting it, and then waiting for more; the wise man, however, is indifferent to what may come his way. Musonius Rufus says that gluttons imitate the shameless greediness of dogs (18B, Lutz 116-117) (23). In City of God 14.20 Augustine says that Cynics hold the shameless view, worthy of dogs, that no one should (20) KELLER, Antike Tierwelt, 1.128. (21) In De sollertia animalium 963C-F Plutarch argues that one would not speak of a dog as having become mad if the dog were not rational to begin with. (22) Dogs are very often described as eaters of carrion; this may be one of the main reasons referring to someone as a dog is usually pejorative. For instances of this in the bible see Exod 22,31; 1 Kgs 16,4; 20,19.23.24.38; 2 Kgs 9,10.36; Ps 68,23; Jer 15,3. This presentation of dogs is also frequent in Josephus, sometimes in direct dependence on the bible. For examples of this see B.J. 4.324; 6.637; Ant. 6.187; 8.270, 289, 361, 407 (= 1 Kgs 20,19), 417; 9.124 (= 1 Kgs 20,23); 15.289. See also Luke 16,21 where dogs are said to lick the sores of Lazarus. (23) Dogs are described as greedy in Isa 56,11; see also Philo, Mos. 1.130.