140 Francis G. H. Pang Aspect Tense Imperfective Perfective Unmarked Past Imperfect Pluperfect Present Perfect Future Future Unmarked Present Aorist 2.5 Constantine R. Campbell (2007) The latest contribution to the discussion of Greek verbal aspect is the recent work of Constantine Campbell. His definition of aspect, much like the others, focuses on the opposition between the internal and external portrayal of an action58. Aspect and Aktionsart is carefully distinct in Campbell’s work. Following Bache, several distinctions are made: whereas aspect is regarded as primarily (not entirely) subjective, Aktionsart is regarded as primarily (not entirely) objective; whereas aspect is a semantic category, Aktionsart a pragmatic category; whereas aspect concerns the perspective of the speaker on an action, Aktionsart concerns how the nature of an action can be objectively determined59. Campbell also adopts the principle of cancelability to distinguish semantic values (aspect) from pragmatic implicature (Aktionsart)60. Like Porter and Fanning, Campbell regards Greek grammatical aspect as equipollent aspectual opposition rather than privative opposition. He did not describe his aspectual system at the outset, claiming that it is rather difficult to choose whether there are two aspects (Fanning, Olsen) or three (Porter and Decker). He contends that the key to the decision is to figure out the aspect of the Perfect and Pluperfect forms. He argues that an inductive/bottom-up approach is preferable, from which the aspect of the Perfect “may be recognized from the patterns evident within text rather than imposed upon it deductively”61. Campbell points out that those who reject a temporal understanding of the verb may prefer the concept of remoteness to distinguish the two imperfective tense-forms (Present and Imperfect)62. Remoteness 58 Formally, he starts his work with the following: “Verbal aspect refers to the manner in which verbs are used to view an action or state. An author/speaker will portray an event either from the inside, as though it is seen as unfolding, or from the outside, as though it is seen as a whole”. Campbell, Verbal Aspect, 1. 59 Campbell, Verbal Aspect, 10-11. 60 Campbell, Verbal Aspect, 26-7. 61 Campbell, Verbal Aspect, 29-30. 62 He cites Decker as an example. Campbell, Verbal Aspect, 15.