532 John Byron which again is a rarely used term in the NT. Apart from 1 John it only appears in the Apocalypse to describe the slaughtered lamb, the massacre of human beings, the killing of the beast and slain prophets and saints (Rev 5,6; 6,4; 13,3; 18,24) (20). Commentators on 1 John 3,12 usually note that the term is intended to indicate a violent murder, perhaps premeditated, and sometimes translate the verse to read: “Cain butchered his brother” (21). Commentators also note that in the LXX sfavzw is frequently used in the context of both animal and human sacrifice (Gen 22,10; Lev 1,5; Isa 57,5; Ezek 16,21; 23,39). Few if any, however, connect the language of 1 John 3,12 with sacrifice or ritual. Raymond Brown is representative when he says: “In the present passage the verb has no necessary cultic significance; it catches the brutality of one brother’s action towards another” (22). While commentators are correct to interpret Cain’s action as a violent murder, it is possible that ritual overtones are also part of the illustration. In classical Greek sfavzw was used to describe the slaughtering of sacrificial animals usually by slitting the animal’s throat (e.g. Herodotus, Hist. 2.39) (23). It was also applied to the murder of humans particularly when the murder implement was a knife or sword (e.g. Herodotus, Hist. 2.39). This understanding of sfavzw was carried over to the LXX where the language of slaughter was used not only in relation to animals but also to describe the ritualistic slaying of false prophets and conquered kings (24). Philo uses sfavzw somewhat sparingly to refer to sacrifice and instances of murder in sacred spaces (Heir 20; Spec. Law 1.212; 3.91; Eternity 20; Providence 2.32). Many of the occurrences of sfavzw in Josephus also have some type of connection to ritual and/or sacred space. Bulls are slaughtered for sacrifice (Ant. 3.206,226, 237,242,249), Antiochus slaughters those who refuse to apostatize (War 1.35), Priests are slaughtered by the Romans in the Temple (Ant. 14.66; 17.237,239) and Galileans are slaughtered by Samaritans while traveling to Jerusalem for the Passover (War 2.240). While there are instances in Josephus and Philo where sfavzw describes a violent death, it is interesting how often that the term is chosen to describe murder in the context of sacred spaces and/or some type of ritual (25). In his TDNT essay, Otto Michel noted that in the context of 1 John 3,12 “sfazw is a strong term for Cain’s fratricide analogous to the ancient use for the murder of brothers or relatives”. Michel’s English translator added an (20) D.E. AUNE, Revelation 1–5 (WBC 52a; Dallas, TX 1997) 353. (21) BROOKE, The Johannine Epistles, 92; B.F. WESTCOTT, The Epistles of St. John. The Greek text with notes by the late Brooke Foss Westcott (Abington 1966) 107; SMALLEY, 1, 2, 3 John, 184. (22) BROWN, 442. (23) O. MICHEL, “sfavzw”, TDNT, VII, 934. (24) The major usage of the term in the LXX is to describe animal sacrifice in Leviticus. There are also a number of occasions when it is used to describe the killing of princes by the conquering king and Elijah’s slaughtering the prophets of Baal (3 Kings 18:40; 4 Kings 10.7, 14; 25:7; Jer 52:10). While not in a context of sacrifice, there do seem to be ritual elements involved in the way that entire groups of people are destroyed. (25) For instance, Antiochus makes a sacrifice of those Jews who refuse to defile themselves. Even though the Galileans pilgrims are not murdered in the temple or even in Jerusalem it is interesting that Josephus has used the language of slaughter to describe the death of those who are traveling to celebrate the Passover.