79 Cataphora and Lack of Clarity in the Book of Revelation tellation was referred to because of the lack of article.12 Boring saw Jesus holding the stars as an anti-astrological sign in that Jesus was in control of them13. 1 Enoch uses stars to symbolize angels.14 However, if the reader does not read ahead, but takes John’s words in light of what precedes, then the stars could refer to the churches, based upon Daniel 12:3 and the choice of the number seven suggests this. At this stage of reading the text, the reader has the problem that John has already referred to the seven lampstands, which also seem (though preferably not) to refer to the churches. This leads to confusion: are the churches represented as stars or lampstands or both of them? There also appears to be a conflict in the imagery, stars shine whereas it is unlikely that the lampstands are shining. 1:20 clarifies the issue, ‘The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches’. This verse acts as the climax of the chapter. Jesus is going to send His angels to the churches. The one angel in 1:1 has become seven angels to represent their presence in the churches. They are the stars and the churches are lightless lampstands that will be ignited by the stars.15 Underlying the text is a forceful accusation against the churches that they are not living a faithful life for Jesus, leading to the letters (chapters 2-3) where detail is provided of their faithlessness. We can see that Revelation 1 builds up ambiguities with the intention of forceful clarification. The rhetorical force of the text powerfully brings home to the reader their spiritual position as perceived by John. ἃ δεῖ γενέσθαι The phrase, ‘…what things must take place quickly,’ 1:1 is very frus- trating. It is unclear due to the absence of a subject for the verb. Both Beale and Aune recognize that this phrase is important in Revelation and ‘constitutes the broad outline of the whole book’16. The churches are intended to ask, ‘what things must soon take place?’ Commentators like to assist in clarifying what John means. Chilton proposes that the phrase refers to ‘…the period known in Scripture as “the Last Days,” meaning the last days of the covenantal nation of Israel, the forty-year “genera- H. Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1906) 18; 12 R. H. Charles, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John vol.1 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1979) 30. M. Boring, Revelation (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989) 84. 13 1 Enoch 21:3, 81, 86:1-3, 88:1, 90:20-25. 14 For more information, see Whiteley, A Search, 183-4, 197-201. 15 Greg Beale, The Book of Revelation (NIGTC, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999) 1124; 16 Aune’s work (Aune, Revelation, 14) on this is particularly interesting.