96 GERALD A. KLINGBEIL – CHANTAL J. KLINGBEIL which is indefinite, but suggests a longer time frame. In terms of ritual space it is important to note that the fasting and praying is happening μimVh y; ; ˛ yho a yepl “ before the God of Heaven”, a phrase which is well known in the elı nˆ i postexilic texts from Elephantine 19. Many ritual texts (often, though not exclusively, involving sacrifices) use the phrase hwhˆ yepl “ before YHWH” as ; y nˆ i a technical term marking ritual space associated with the tabernacle/temple (e.g., Lev 1,3.5.11; 3,1.7.12; 4,4.6.7.15.17.18.24; 5,26; 6,7.18; 7,30; etc.) 20. Since postexilic authors show a preference for the phrase “God of heaven ” 21 it can be argued that “before YHWH” and “before the God of heaven ” is somewhat synonymous and highlights the importance of location and relation. Clearly, Nehemiah is not “before the God of heaven” in the sense of geography. He is sitting and praying in Susa and there is no indication that he is fasting and praying in a separate ritual space. But, “ before the God of heaven” indicates a dependence and relationship to the God to whom the prayer is directed. Ritual language is one of the most difficult to ascertain elements of biblical ritual, since the texts do not always indicate specific formulas or words that are mentioned. Prayer is one of the exceptions to this rule and Neh 1,5-11 provides a good example of a penitentiary prayer appearing as part of a ritual response to a crisis. Understood in this manner, it becomes clear that the eyes of God which should be open to “hear” the prayer point to the fact that prayer in ancient Israel (as well as in the larger cultural and religious universe of the ANE) did not only involve words (so important to our western idea of communication) but also action and that it was the complete package that Nehemiah presented to the God of heaven. 3. Socio-Linguistic Pragmatics and Nehemiah 1,6 In traditional biblical studies it has been customary to focus attention almost exclusively on semantics in the exegetical enterprise. But as is easily observable (as in the case of Neh 1,6), an exclusively semantic study does not always provide a complete reading. In order to understand the biblical communication appropriately we need to go beyond the simple meaning of words. The linguistic subfield of pragmatics may provide some help in achieving a more rounded reading 22. While semantics deal with the See for further references WILLIAMSON, Ezra, Nehemiah, 12. 19 If one “stands” before YHWH it generally points to serving YHWH (Deut 20 29,14 ; Jer 35,19; Zech 3,1; etc.) and ancient translators and scribes were well aware of this concept as the tiqqun sopherim in Gen 18,22 shows. The phrase occurs eight times in Ezra (Ezra 1,2; 5,11.12; 6,9.10; 21 7,12.21.23) and four times in Nehemiah (Neh 1,4.5; 2,4.20). C.W. MORRIS, Foundations of the Theory of Signs (Chicago, IL 1938) 30, 22 defined pragmatics as the “science of the relation of signs to their interpreters”.